“As with menu expectations, students enter with beliefs and norms about learning. Some may view the educational process transactionally, with a focus on content. Their prior experiences may mean they expect lectures. Students may have deeply ingrained views about what it means to learn. They most surely have beliefs about themselves as learners. What happens when students’ instructional expectations or norms are violated?”

—Lolita Paff, “Food for Thought: Setting the Table for Learning”